Goethe’s contribution to studies on retranslation is his classification of (re)translations into three epochs, namely domestication, combination of domestication and foreignization, and foreignization. Lu Xun’s is his emphasis on the absolute necessity of retranslating. Their ideas on retranslation have important implications for contemporary retranslation research.

Metaphor is a pervasive phenomenon, the study of metaphor is a complicated task, and the exploration of metaphor is still going on. This present paper attempts to interpret metaphor from pragmaticapproaches from the perspectives of Indirect Speech Act Theory, Conversational Implicature Theory and Relevance Theory respectively, aiming at making a contrastive study of these three interpretations and finding features including similarities and differences and limitations among them.

This study tries to highlight the historical development of Arabic throughout the centuries. It also presents some linguistic characteristics of Arabic with a slight comparison to Sana’ani Yemen Dialect. In addition, the study presents the diglossic situation of Arabic through discussing the social role played by both Modern Standard Arabic (henceforth MSA) and the different Arabic dialects in the Arab societies as well as the relationship between diglossia and education. Historically, the study shows that Arabic has been undergone different stages of development and progress over the centuries and the advent of Islam marks the real occurrence of Arabic as a standard language through the revelation of the Holy Quran which was revealed in Arabic. Such a remarkable turning point immensely contributed to transmitting Arabic from the unknown side of the history to be a world language. On the other hand, Arabic has unique linguistic characteristics which make it a distinctive language. Moreover, Arabic shares with other Semitic languages the root of pattern morphology which functions as a generator of Arabic words.

Taking authentic data from the simultaneous interpreting of the Chinese 2012 Spring Festival Gala as the corpus of this study, the present paper summarizes two kinds of pragmatic functions with regard to the discourse markers used in the corpus, namely passive markers and proactive markers. The discourse markers discussed here are used by the interpreters, not those they translated. The paper then discusses their functions with some examples. Finally, the reasons for using discourse markers are investigated. It is hoped that the research findings can shed some light on the success of simultaneous interpreters in use of discourse markers.

The present article investigates the reasons of general human behaviors accompanied by their nature and characteristics in Shakespeare’s great tragedy, Macbeth. Shakespeare with a mixture of tragic and comic tones tested everybody with the scale of humanism (humanity) in this play. He poses the story of the struggle of the human spirit out of darkness of errors and sin, into the light of truth and wisdom. He uses Macbeth to show that dark thought and unconscious temptations cause a man who lacks strength of character to do terrible actions. Through various soliloquies of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, Shakespeare transforms them into a reflective analysis of human characteristics and identifies the complexity of the human condition. This play is a deep interpretation of realistic view of psychological, social, and divines human personality in the process of life affairs and the interactions among people with their destinies.

The dominance of English language in Nigeria has led to the depletion in the use of indigenous languages in the country. This has generated the necessity of conducting a more sophisticated and in fact an exhaustive study of the number of existent and non-existent/extinct languages. The basic finding of this study is that the mother tongue is still the dominant language in use in the home domain in Nigeria. This scenario reveals a case of language maintenance in Nigeria for now. Indeed, this position may not be sustainable for long in view of the preference of Nigerian youths for English over the mother tongue. The reasons behind current maintenance may not be unconnected with the fact that Nigerians are thoroughly bilingual in the semi-exoglossic type. This type of bilingualism entails knowledge of English and the mother tongue of the individual involved. While this development signifies that Nigerians are simply not learning any other indigenous language in addition to theirs as stipulated in the constitution, the study is a pointer to the fact that the stage is now fully set for the establishment of a mother-tongue based bilingual education in English and the mother tongue to avert any eventuality owing to the fact that English in Nigeria today is used in practically all domains. The study is a clarion call on all stakeholders to wake-up to the reality of the scourge of language shift and language endangerment currently plaguing Africa including Nigeria and some other developing countries of the world.

The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of critical thinking level on Iranian EFL learners’ choice of language learning strategies. The participants were 93 male and female B.A. level Iranian students majoring in English language teaching and English translation at Imam Khomeini International University in Qazvin; Zanjan University; and Kar non-profit University in Qazvin. Data were collected using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), and Peter Honey’s Critical Thinking Scale. The participants were divided into three levels (High, Mid, Low) of critical thinking based on their scores on the critical thinking questionnaire. The participants’ strategy use in the three groups was compared using six separate one-way ANOVA procedures. The results showed that the level of critical thinking significantly influenced students’ choice of memory, cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies, but had no significant effect on the choice of compensation and affective strategies. The findings of this study may have both theoretical and pedagogical implications for learners, teachers, and syllabus designers.

The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.

Within the scope of the field of Pragmatics includes the study of speech acts. Yule (1996) defines a speech act as "an action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate" (48). This communication occurs between the speaker and the hearer. This study compares the directness and indirectness of speech acts of requests by investigating Arabic and English data among American speakers of English and Saudi speakers of Arabic. Differences are revealed between the two groups in terms of formulating requests and how social power and social distance between interlocutors may affect the choice of using these strategies of requests in the same given situations. Based on the results, the researcher found that most Saudi native speakers of Arabic used direct requests when requesting to their intimate friends and when superiors were requesting to their inferiors. However, most American native speakers of English have a tendency to use indirect requests including hints and context embedded meaning when addressing unfamiliar friends and when inferiors are addressing their superiors.

This article examines the interdependence between English language and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and explores the role of ICT in boosting wealth creation. Nigeria is noted for her over-reliance on revenue from oil, a situation which has made even the government of Nigeria to ignore other sectors of the economy that can equally foster wealth creation. In this article, ICT provides that avenue and is seen as a good revenue base for government, for encouraging import and export, promoting self-reliance by creating jobs for the army of youths and paving way for competitive language education. The article decries the near absence of effective electricity supply in the country which is a major challenge of ICT and suggests that government should explore alternative sources of energy supply rather than depending on hydro-electricity. It also advocates for the subsidy of ICT facilities so as to pave way for the average Nigerian to purchase computer systems—a necessity in ICT.

This paper has focused the demonstrate of the two great American writers, Ernest Hemingway and F. Scot Fitzgerald�s experience with their own health problems, influence on their life and writing. Hemingway�s weakening physical condition and increasing severe mental problems that were bipolar disorder, alcohol dependence, traumatic brain injury, and probable border line and narcissistic personality traits considerably reduced his fictional creation in the final years of his lifetime. Fitzgerald spent more than a decade of his later career, writing about illness while he struggled with tuberculosis, insomnia, alcoholism and heart disease as well as the mental illness of his wife Zelda with studying of Fitzgerald�s analysis of his own life, from his stories, we are able to bring together the ineffaceable connection between personal suffering and the need for expression, between illness and identity, between writing and healing. As a result, Fitzgerald�s donations to the canon of illness literature are noteworthy and � as is characteristic of his career � credit for these contributions is overdue.

Language is used as a medium of expression. We use language to express our ideas, emotions, feelings or to communicate with others. It is easy to do in our mother tongue or the first language. But if we want to express our ideas, emotions, feelings in second language or a foreign language the difficulty occurs. It is not that it is a different language but because among the different barrier the cultural barrier is one that is creating obstacles in learning a foreign language or second language. The issue of language barrier is particularly critical during an intercultural service encounters for ESL customers. This article presents the cultural barrier of learning a foreign language or second language and it also provide information how we can overcome the cultural barrier successfully in learning a language. This article provide a survey report which was conducted on 100 students of a university in Bangladesh which provide information what type of cultural barrier they face in learning a foreign language.

Error analysis is a type of linguistic studies that focuses on the errors that learners make. To identify and explain the errors which are committed by second/foreign language learners, error analysis is one of the best ways of such purpose. This study aimed at analyzing the errors in the use of prepositions made by Kurdish EFL learners. One-hundred and seven students studying English at University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq participated in this study. Based on the result of Oxford Placement Test participants of this study were at three different levels of proficiency; elementary, lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate. This study tries to find out the sources of the errors and specify the differences between learners at different levels of proficiency. An Oxford Placement test and a preposition test were used to elicit the data. After analyzing the data by SAS ver. 9 and SPSS VER. 22, it was revealed that, Kurdish EFL learners have problems in the use of English prepositions. The students at different levels of proficiency were different in making errors and the sources behind making errors. The students of higher levels of proficiency were least effected by the interlingual source of errors and also intralingual errors, and they committed fewer errors; it might be because students at higher levels of proficiency have more practice compare to the lower levels of proficiency. In the light of findings, this study has some pedagogical implications for teaching prepositions. Teachers are advised to draw their students’ attention to the fact that literal translation into their mother tongue may lead to errors.

A mass migration of refugees is threatening the economic and social stability of Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, Egypt, the Palestinian Territories and the European Union. Millions of desperate refugees from Syria, Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran and sub-Saharan Africa are overwhelming the Middle East and Europe with needs for safety, food and shelter. Their language skills are not viewed as an imperative in the current chaos and yet they remain significant tools for escaping the poverty and misery of refugee life and obtaining employment in host countries. The author profiles how host EU and Middle Eastern countries have addressed refugees’ language needs in the past and present. Suggestions are made for possible strategies for addressing language instruction for refugees.

This paper has focused the demonstrate of experience with his own health problems, influence on their life and writing. Hemingway’s weakening physical condition and increasing severe mental problems that were bipolar disorder, alcohol dependence, traumatic brain injury, and probable border line and narcissistic personality traits considerably reduced his fictional creation in the final years of his lifetime. He spent more than a decade of his later career, writing about illness while he struggled with tuberculosis, insomnia, alcoholism and heart disease as well as the mental illness of his wife Zelda with studying of Fitzgerald’s analysis of his own life, from his stories, we are able to bring together the ineffaceable connection between personal suffering and the need for expression, between illness and identity, between writing and healing. As a result, he donations to the canon of illness literature are noteworthy and – as is characteristic of his career – credit for these contributions is overdue.

The purpose of this study was to identify the factors related to the teacher’s attitude involved in oral communication of ESL students. The investigation was carried out at Bahawalpur, Pakistan. This research was reported on a survey study and used a questionnaire for the students and interview format for the teachers as tools to investigate the issue. The interview was taken from forty highly experienced ESL/EFL teachers; and for questionnaire almost 100 students from each college were selected, total 498 ESL students participated in this research. The data provided through interview from teacher was analyzed qualitatively and the data from the students was analyzed through SPSS and Microsoft Excel. The following conclusion was drawn from the data collected from this investigation: Instructor’s attitude motivates debilitating speaking factors. This investigation has proved explanatory implications and additionally this study also examined the attitudes and opinions of language teachers about second language learning and teaching. Furthermore, the research suggested a variety of strategies for learners to cope with second language anxiety.

Poetry is a literary medium which often resonates with the responder on a personal level, through the subject matter of the poem; the techniques are used to portray this study. Robert Frost utilizes many techniques to convey his respect for nature, which consequently makes much of his poetry relevant to the everyday person. His poetry deals with ordinary people, including farmers and workers of his age. Because of his unfeigned interest in and love for rural people, Frost emerged ultimately as a national bard and a poetic sage of America. On the surface, “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” focuses on a seemingly unimportant event of the poet stopping one winter evening, mesmerized by the snow and the wood. However, at a figurative level, the poem goes deeper connecting with the people’s everyday life. The poet portrays the universal images that every man thinks about his life what he has done on earth, or through the ordinary situations. A village farmer couple is the protagonist of the poem through whom the psychology of common people are impacted on his writings. The dilemma of a simple stranger shows the psychological conflicts of the contemporary age as reflected in “The Road Not Taken.” In the poem, “Mending Wall,” the difference of opinion of two neighbors can be interpreted at national or international level. Thus this paper examines very familiar issues of the common people of the poet’s age.

The factorial validity of Logical Mathematical Intelligence Scale (LMIS) developed by Shearer (1994) was explored in this study by resorting to schema theory. To this end, its 17 interrogative sentences were rendered declarative and six heterogeneous alternatives offered for each sentence were reduced to four homogenous choices. The revised LMIS was then administered to 376 undergraduate and graduate students who had taken various courses offered in the English language. When the participants’ responses were subjected to Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax with Kaiser Normalization five factors appeared showing that the cognitive domain of logical-mathematical intelligence measured by the LMIS consists of five latent variables representing mathematical, logical, witty, ingenious, and inquisitive genera. Correlating the scale and its factors with the students’ GPA established a significant but negative relationship between the logical genus and academic achievement. The results are discussed and suggestions are made for future research.

The aim of this paper is to identify some of the problems faced by Saudi learners of English at Taibah University when translating from Arabic into English. Also, this paper discusses the reasons why these errors are attributed to. These students commit different types of errors, such as spelling, lexical errors, and errors of synonymy, syntactic errors, and finally, the cohesion errors. The committed errors are due to linguistic and non-linguistic factors. This study, as well, identifies the main functions served by the topics discussed by the researcher and determines that the most predominant function is the promotion of understanding between cultures.